Runes
Besides raiding Viking ships, runes are the trademark of the Viking Age. While it is not proven whether a majority of the Vikings could read, the placement of runic inscriptions in public places suggests that it is so. (Wolf, 2004, p.47) While the use of rune stones in relation to magic is questioned, they were definitely used as a source for writing and communicating and were often raised in memory of people by their closest relatives. (Wolf, 2004, p.7). Rune stones could be raised in commemoration of men or women by men or women, though there are none raised in memory of children, so there is little to nothing known about their beliefs in a child's afterlife (Wolf, 2004, p.13-15).
Magic
Norse mythology states that Odin, father of the gods and man, and god of wisdom, power, war, and poetry, created man from trees with his brothers Thor and Freyr and gave man the knowledge of runes (Haywood, 1995, p.26). These runes were supposedly used for, not only communication and memorial inscriptions, but for charms as well (atlas 28). While this explanation is widely accepted nowadays, the magical and charm aspect of rune lore has recently come under the scrutiny of runologists and historians alike.
Early runes studies have typically emphasized the magical and ritual aspect of their creation and use. As Vikingrune.com explains, this is due to a lack of understanding in which we don't know what certain symbols, or artifacts containing these symbols, were used for or meant, and we therefore, confine their meanings to a magical runic formula (VikingRune.com). The book, Runes and Runic Inscriptions: Collected Essays on Anglo-Saxon and Viking Runes, builds off of this and emphasizes a cautious approach when analyzing runes:
Early runes studies have typically emphasized the magical and ritual aspect of their creation and use. As Vikingrune.com explains, this is due to a lack of understanding in which we don't know what certain symbols, or artifacts containing these symbols, were used for or meant, and we therefore, confine their meanings to a magical runic formula (VikingRune.com). The book, Runes and Runic Inscriptions: Collected Essays on Anglo-Saxon and Viking Runes, builds off of this and emphasizes a cautious approach when analyzing runes:
"The belief that there is an essential connextion between the characters of the runic alphabet and magical powers will affect one's approach to inscriptions whose meaning is difficult to determine, may modify one's interpretation of inscriptions whose meaning is tolerably clear, and is likely to influence one's preference if there are several interpretations all equally possible formally....you will tend to regard all early runic inscriptions as magical, no matter their apparent meaning." (Page, 1998, p.105)
Despite this caution, R.I. Page, author of the aforementioned book, also understands that there is still significant evidence that points towards some magical practice or magical belief contained with runes. He explains that there are four types of evidential support: etymological, archaeological, runological, and literary. The word rune comes from the Germanic language word runar which means secret and lore mysteries and also derives from the Roman word runa which means divine. Archaeologists have found many runes with unknown runic inscriptions in settings that are commonly associated with magical practices. These runic inscriptions also use common and well known medieval words that are specifically meant for magical interpretations and are not found elsewhere. Finally, there are multiple uses of rune magic in the Eddic and Skaldic poems and Icelandic Sagas (Page, 1998, p.105-107). For example, in the longest Icelandic saga, Havamal (Sayings of the High One), Odin states that runes are divine, (Wolf, 2004, p.45) runes had healing powers in the Eddic poem Lay of Sigrdrifa, (Wolf, 2004, p.65) and runes cure wasting sicknesses in the Egil's saga (Wolf, 2004, p.66).
Through this analysis, the author illuminates another interesting point - the Vikings could have thought the words the runes represented to be magical, not the actual rune themselves (Page, 1998, p.105). Rune stones could be no more magical than the average Viking boot, it is the words and the only mode of writing was available on stones and wood.
Below are supposed magical runes. (VikingRune.com)
Through this analysis, the author illuminates another interesting point - the Vikings could have thought the words the runes represented to be magical, not the actual rune themselves (Page, 1998, p.105). Rune stones could be no more magical than the average Viking boot, it is the words and the only mode of writing was available on stones and wood.
Below are supposed magical runes. (VikingRune.com)
Funerals and the Afterlife
Since the Vikings were not under the control of one governing body, but rather local democratic institutions, usually led by Jarls or Viking Kings, there is no consistent, defiant religious beliefs. While the stories and epics of the gods were generally accepted and retained their images throughout Scandinavia, there is no consistency about death. Many believe death carried on in the grave inseparable from the body, but there were also beliefs in underworlds, known as Hel or Niflheim, or in Odin'a palace, Valholl (Valhalla) (Wolf, 2004, p.158).
Overall, rune stones were generally used for other purposes than graves. Graves are usually market by mounds or rocks, few with runic inscriptions (Wolf, 2004, p.161). Rune stones were generally created as monuments to commemorate fallen kinsmen or to celebrate current, successful, living ones, outside the graveyard (VikingRune.com).
Overall, rune stones were generally used for other purposes than graves. Graves are usually market by mounds or rocks, few with runic inscriptions (Wolf, 2004, p.161). Rune stones were generally created as monuments to commemorate fallen kinsmen or to celebrate current, successful, living ones, outside the graveyard (VikingRune.com).
Inscriptions
Runic inscriptions are the basis of writing technologies in Scandinavia. They were used for rune stones and writing down early Icelandic sagas and Eddic and Skaldic poems. Scandinavia has more runic inscriptions than all other Germanic countries (Page, 1998, 105). Generally speaking, Danish runic inscriptions appear on monuments and Swedo-Norwgian runic inscriptions were used for everyday communication (Wolf, 2004, p.46). They were also used on a manner of other objects daily to help communicate. Runic inscriptions have been found on jewelry, weapons, tools, and utensils (Wolf, 2004, p.48). In fact, many rune inscribed objects are wooden sticks. Most of which were ownership tags or mercantile transactions (Wolf, 2004, p.49).
Alphabet
While the literacy of the Vikings has been debated, they could not have been totally illiterate due to the presence of their own alphabet called runic (Wolf, 2004, p.45). Each character is called a rune. The origin of the runes have also been debated but it is generally accepted by scholars that it was created by Germanic peoples around the 2nd century A.D., possibly under the influence of the Roman alphabet (Wolf, 2004, p.45). The Vikings wrote this alphabet using vertical and diagonal lines, usually on stone and wood, though not exclusively.
The oldest runic alphabet, Elder Futhark consists of 24 characters. Each runic character had a name and each rune could represent both a sound and entity. For example, the D-rune was called dagaR, meaning day (Wolf, 2004, p.46). From there it under went many transformations and the language began to eliminate characters from the alphabet.
The oldest runic alphabet, Elder Futhark consists of 24 characters. Each runic character had a name and each rune could represent both a sound and entity. For example, the D-rune was called dagaR, meaning day (Wolf, 2004, p.46). From there it under went many transformations and the language began to eliminate characters from the alphabet.
Development
The oldest rune stones are inscribed with Elder Futhark (shown below) and date from 4th century, but most runic inscription were created during the later year of the Viking Age and use Younger Futhark. Futhark is just the first few letters of alphabet and has nothing to do with ABC order (VikingRune.com).
To learn more about the development of the language and writing, visit the VikingRune website, and to learn more about rune stones and their inscriptions visit the NordicRunes website. Both are located on the resource page.
To learn more about the development of the language and writing, visit the VikingRune website, and to learn more about rune stones and their inscriptions visit the NordicRunes website. Both are located on the resource page.
Texts
Most of our knowledge concern Viking mythology and ideals come from the Poetica Edda, Skaldic poetry, and the Prose Edda. The Prose Edda, not discussed below, was a book written by Snorri Sturluson in an attempt to translate some of the sagas and save some of the diminishing knowledge of Skaldic poetry. His book is sectioned into parts which contain rules of poetic diction and retell many myths that lie behind the kenning of Skaldic poetry (Wolf, 2004, p.149).
Before the publication of Sturluson's book or the Poetica Edda, stories were originally composed and transmitted orally, and they were not recorded until after Scandinavians had converted to Christianity (Wolf, 2004, p.49). Despite some of the inevitable changes in the stories, Norse saga literature, the poetry and prose works of the age, has had a major impact on the view of the Vikings, more so than any other source (Haywood, 1995, p.94).
The Njal's saga, Egil's saga, and Laxdaela saga are ranked among the greatest works of European literature (Haywood, 1995, p.95).
Before the publication of Sturluson's book or the Poetica Edda, stories were originally composed and transmitted orally, and they were not recorded until after Scandinavians had converted to Christianity (Wolf, 2004, p.49). Despite some of the inevitable changes in the stories, Norse saga literature, the poetry and prose works of the age, has had a major impact on the view of the Vikings, more so than any other source (Haywood, 1995, p.94).
The Njal's saga, Egil's saga, and Laxdaela saga are ranked among the greatest works of European literature (Haywood, 1995, p.95).
Eddic Poems
The Eddic poems derive their name from the word edda which means 'poetics'. Edda is the title given not only to Sturluson's book, but also to the Icelandic manuscript, formally known as the Codex Regius. The Codex Regius (Poetica Edda) contains most of the early poems (Wolf, 2004, p.49).
The Poetica Edda is an anthology of 29 poems, 11 of which are written about mythological topics and 16 on legendary heroes of Germanic folklore. These poems were written anonymously and the actual dates are still debated. These poems are about pagan gods specifically Nordic, such as Odin and Thor, and are narrative works, not hymns, like Christian works (Wolf, 2004, p.50).
The Poetica Edda is an anthology of 29 poems, 11 of which are written about mythological topics and 16 on legendary heroes of Germanic folklore. These poems were written anonymously and the actual dates are still debated. These poems are about pagan gods specifically Nordic, such as Odin and Thor, and are narrative works, not hymns, like Christian works (Wolf, 2004, p.50).
Skaldic Poems
The word 'skaldic' is derived from the Old Norse word 'skald', which means poets. Poets who relayed Skaldic poetry were also called skalds. Skaldic poetry includes everything that is Old Norse Icelandic 'alliterative poetry' that is not Eddic. The earliest of these poems is dated in the 9th century. Unlike Eddic poetry, the majority of Skaldic poems are about contemporary Viking events and are about real events and people (Wolf, 2004, p.55).
The modern reader would find it hard to read Skaldic poetry due to their highly specialized diction and use of complex kennings (Wolf, 2004, p.55). As aforesaid, it is because of this enormously hard diction that Sturluson composed his Edda. He feared that the art of Skaldic poetry would be lost to the ages if he could not get other people to understand. His work is comprise of four parts: the prologue, Deluding of Gylfi, Language of Poetry, and List of Verse Forms (Haywood, 1995, p.95).
The modern reader would find it hard to read Skaldic poetry due to their highly specialized diction and use of complex kennings (Wolf, 2004, p.55). As aforesaid, it is because of this enormously hard diction that Sturluson composed his Edda. He feared that the art of Skaldic poetry would be lost to the ages if he could not get other people to understand. His work is comprise of four parts: the prologue, Deluding of Gylfi, Language of Poetry, and List of Verse Forms (Haywood, 1995, p.95).